Supporting Mothers, Strengthening Futures: Reforming Tennessee’s Policies for Families with Young Children

By Naomi Lopez, M.A.

This is Issue 105 of the On Point Series. 

Executive Summary

• The first 1,000 days of a child’s life – from conception to age two – are critical to brain development, emotional health, and physical well-being. This makes support for pregnant women and mothers of young children in need during this timeframe especially important.

• Tennessee has dozens of programs addressing health and well-being, financial assistance, care coordination, material support and more that assist mothers of young children. Yet, most have their own application processes and varying eligibility requirements, which can be overwhelming to navigate.

• Reforms that aim to strengthen Tennessee families in need could include: streamlining fragmented bureaucracies through AI-driven integration; reducing child care costs and increasing access by rethinking regulations; and smoothing the benefits cliff with transitional benefits that aim to bridge the move from public assistance to self-sufficiency.

Introduction

The Case for Investing in Families with Young Children

Tennessee is one of many states that have been strengthening support for pregnant women and young families and continues to seek opportunities for improvement.^[1] Supporting mothers and young children isn’t just the right thing to do—it’s one of the smartest investments that Tennessee can make. The first 1,000 days of a child’s life are critical for brain development, emotional health, and physical well-being.^[2] Research consistently shows that children who receive adequate care, nutrition, and support during this period are more likely to succeed in school, maintain good health, and grow into productive members of society.

During the October 2024 vice presidential debate, then-U.S. Senator J.D. Vance highlighted the growing political focus on family support, proposing a $5,000-per-year child tax credit.^[3] Federal initiatives like this are valuable and work in tandem with states on the frontlines in administering programs that directly support mothers and children. These include healthcare, child care, food assistance, and early education — and Tennessee already allocates billions of dollars to these efforts.^[4]

Despite substantial investment, many of these resources fail to achieve their intended impact. Inefficiencies, fragmentation, and a lack of accountability plague existing systems, leaving young mothers and families to navigate a maze of disconnected programs. From unaffordable child care to the “benefits cliff” that punishes upward mobility, Tennessee families face systemic barriers that prevent them from achieving stability and success.^{[5], [6]}

This paper examines these challenges and outlines actionable steps that Tennessee policymakers can take to address them. Tennessee can develop a family-centered model that delivers real results by removing burdensome regulations, creating streamlined systems, and ensuring that taxpayer dollars are used effectively. The state has a unique opportunity to lead innovative reforms that prioritize families and strengthen communities.

The current labyrinth of overlapping programs and piecemeal initiatives is a relic of the past—far removed from what any state  would design if starting fresh today. It’s time to move beyond Band-Aid fixes and build 21st-century solutions that address the needs of modern families while delivering accountability for taxpayers.

The Importance of the First 1,000 Days

The first 1,000 days of a child’s life — from conception to about age two — represent a period of development unlike any other. This period is marked by extraordinary growth: a child’s brain forms over a million neural connections every second, building pathways for learning, emotional regulation, and physical health.^[7] Early experiences during this window, whether positive or negative, have a profound and lasting impact.

Positive influences — such as proper nutrition, stable relationships, and consistent care —strengthen neural pathways and promote healthy development. On the other hand, challenges like stress, neglect, or inadequate nutrition disrupt brain development, leading to deficits that are difficult to reverse.^[8] Nutritional support is particularly vital during this period. Nutrients such as protein, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids play a crucial role in cognitive and physical growth.^[9] Without these essentials, children face risks of stunted development and long-term health challenges.^[10]

Equally important are secure, nurturing relationships with caregivers. These bonds provide the emotional foundation that children need to thrive and foster social skills and resilience.^[11] Conversely, toxic stress—caused by prolonged instability, neglect, or abuse—activates responses that can damage brain architecture and hinder a child’s potential.^[12]

Investing in this critical period isn’t just about survival—it’s about creating the conditions for children to thrive. Tennessee has an obligation to prioritize policies that address the unique needs of the first 1,000 days, creating ripple effects that benefit families and communities and determine the state’s future.

Obstacles Facing Families

Summary

If Tennessee families cannot make ends meet, then they cannot take advantage of those critical first 1,000 days. Sadly, the reality of poverty, and the ensuing struggles of families to provide proper nutrition and care, can cause generational disadvantages. Though these issues might feel intractable, the Convergence Collaborative on Supports for Working Families sought solutions through a year-long initiative. The Collaborative brought together experts from across the political and ideological spectrum — leaders in areas including business, early childhood education, research, and advocacy — to identify the key obstacles preventing families from thriving.^[13] Through monthly meetings, these thought leaders pinpointed systemic barriers and proposed action.

One major obstacle identified by the Collaborative is the unaffordable cost of child care. For many families, especially those with low-to-moderate incomes, the price of quality child care is out of reach. This could force parents into difficult circumstances: working longer hours to pay for care or relying on unreliable or low-quality options. Parents—particularly mothers because of the time spent in recovery from childbirth and breastfeeding—often find themselves stuck between rigid job demands and caregiving responsibilities. The high costs of care coupled with limited options can be an insurmountable and constant struggle, limiting opportunities for career growth and financial stability.^[14]  Of unemployed Tennesseans, around one in six say that they are out of the workforce because of caregiving.^[15]

Even if a parent wants to leave the workforce entirely, not every parent can afford to do so. These trade-offs can harm long-term economic security and lead to inconsistent care that harms children’s development. ^{[16], [17]} Given the literature on a child’s first 1,000 days, developmental issues can be irreversible, no matter what improvement a family sees in its financial situation.

The fragmented and inefficient nature of public programs is another hindrance to delivering quality child care to all families. The Collaborative found that families are often forced to navigate a labyrinth of services, each with its own applications, eligibility requirements, and bureaucratic hurdles. These disconnected programs waste time, energy, and resources, making it harder for families to access the help that they need. For struggling parents, especially young mothers, this complexity feels overwhelming and discouraging.

The benefits cliff compounds these issues. Families can face a sharp reduction in benefits when they earn even slightly more income, creating a punishing disincentive to advance economically.^[18] This structure traps families in a cycle of dependency, where efforts to improve their financial situation can paradoxically leave them financially unstable.

With complex programs, expensive child care, and the benefits cliff, Tennessee must act quickly to help raise a healthy, stable, and productive generation.

Overwhelming Bureaucracies and Program Duplications

Tennessee’s network of programs that help parents and children during the first 1,000 days spans dozens of state and federally-funded initiatives (see Appendix A).^[19] While these programs are well-intentioned, their fragmented nature and lack of accountability ^[20] hinder their effectiveness and waste precious taxpayer resources.

The complexity begins with the sheer number of programs which can be considered as addressing key focus areas such as health and well-being, care coordination, financial assistance, and material support. For instance, for health and well-being alone, there are 18 programs such as CoverKids, the Nurse-Family Partnership, and Parents As Teachers. There are also multiple nutrition assistance programs with separate applications and management. Most programs and initiatives operate independently, resulting in overlapping purposes and disconnected agency administrations.

Of the dozens of programs, there are more than 30 programs with varied eligibility requirements, most with their own application processes and agency contacts. This is a system that can overwhelm a single mother with a small child. Instead of focusing on their children’s health and development, mothers are forced to contend with information-gathering and navigating the bureaucratic maze. In some instances, they act as their own case managers in a system designed more for enshrining bureaucracy than achieving family success.

Worse, taxpayers lack data on the programs that they fund. What are the impacts on family well-being as the result of each program? How much of every dollar reaches the intended recipient? Which are the most- and least-effective programs in meeting their stated goals? Aside from a few programs, the state doesn’t require programs to report the extent to which resources reach those in need. Without meaningful data, it’s impossible to ensure that these efforts fulfill their mission.

If Tennessee’s state programs are anything like those at the federal level, then benefits must pass through a vast workforce of middlemen before they land in the pockets and pantries of families in need.^[21] With 38,133 employees in the executive branch as of 2023, Tennessee could find more direct ways of delivering life-saving resources to families.^[22]

As it stands, accessing Tennessee programs is like navigating a labyrinth of multiple overlapping levels. A better system would be family-centered, streamlined, and outcome-driven. Families would have a single point of access, and resources would be allocated based on clear evidence of recipient need and impact.

Reforming this broken system is both a moral and practical imperative. By consolidating overlapping initiatives, introducing robust accountability measures, and focusing on outcomes, Tennessee can create a support network that truly serves families. The first 1,000 days of a child’s life are too important to leave the current system as-is. It’s time to rebuild with families—not systems—in mind.

The High Cost of Child Care

The average annual cost of a toddler’s full-time child care in Tennessee is just over $12,000 at licensed centers.^[23]  For a single mother with earnings at the federal poverty level ($19,720), child care alone consumes more than 60 percent of her total income.^[24] This leaves families struggling to cover other essential needs like housing, food, and transportation.

Tennessee’s restrictive regulations likely contribute to these high costs. According to the Childcare Regulation Index, Tennessee ranks as the 31st least restrictive state in the nation—that is, there are 30 states ranked ahead of Tennessee in child care freedom for imposing fewer regulations on providers.^[25] These regulations are costly and reduce supply, without any clear evidence of improved care quality. They create unnecessary barriers for families, especially those with low incomes.

The Childcare Regulation Index highlights the ways in which stringent requirements — such as staffing ratios, licensing fees, and facility standards — increase operational expenses for child care providers.^[26] For example, Tennessee enforces a staff-to-child ratio of 1:4 for infants while Idaho, New Mexico, and Georgia use a ratio of 1:6.^[27] Families often pay for these costs in the form of higher fees. What’s more, the Childcare Regulation Index notes there is a weak relationship between the quality of child care and the regulations it has documented.

Additionally, restrictive regulations limit the supply of child care, as the high cost of compliance deters providers from entering the market or expanding their services. As a result, families in Tennessee face fewer options, not least in the “child care deserts” where rural or low-income residents reside.^[28]

Tennessee’s child care system is restrictive and more expensive than the national average, leaving families with fewer choices and higher costs. This reality places an outsized burden on low-income households, exacerbating inequalities and making it harder for parents to work and provide for their families. Reforming these regulations to balance affordability, accessibility, and quality is essential to addressing the child care crisis in Tennessee. Reducing unnecessary restrictions and facilitating providers’ entry into the market could reduce costs and expand options for families in need.

The Benefits Cliff

Children need stability during their first 1,000 days, and families are destabilized when their responsible choices ultimately result in a dramatic drop in assets.

The “benefits cliff” happens when earning more money leaves a person or family worse off financially due to a loss of eligibility for certain benefits. This problem disincentivizes marriage, full-time employment, and other choices that would advance a low-income parent’s career.^[29]

A parent accepting a promotion at several dollars more per hour can lose so many benefits that her family is now poorer.^[30] An example from Illinois Policy Institute describes  a single mom making $12 an hour at a minimum-wage job while raising her small child.^[31] To help make ends meet, she gets government benefits like food assistance, child care, and housing support. These programs are essential to providing for her family.

Now, her finances should improve if her boss offers her a promotion that raises her pay to $18 an hour. Instead, her hard work creates a problem. As her paycheck increases, she starts to lose the government benefits currently needed by her family to survive.  This mom and others like her might see decreases in rent subsidies and food benefits, and they might no longer qualify for child care assistance. ^{[32], [33]}

When adding up all the lost benefits, this hypothetical single mom ends up with fewer net resources than she had at the lower wage.^[34] In fact, this mom might need to earn $38 an hour, depending on her current benefits, for the promotion to actually help her family financially. Unless she gets another $20/hour raise, she has two bad options: accept the $18 an hour promotion and struggle to keep her child housed, fed, and clothed, or keep her lower wages at the expense of her career prospects.

To give parents better options, policies need to change so that benefits gradually decrease as income rises. This would keep families from falling off the benefits cliff by ensuring that hard work and career growth are always rewarded.

Reform Recommendations

Streamlining Bureaucracies and Consolidating Programs

Tennessee has an opportunity to modernize its family-support programs by leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). Implementing AI-driven analysis will identify redundancies, target the recipients of resources more precisely, and provide publicly available information on program effectiveness. Integrating APIs across systems such as child care, nutrition assistance, and healthcare will enable seamless data sharing, creating a single-entry, one-stop eligibility system that simplifies access and reduces bureaucratic confusion for families.

AI can analyze program participation, spending patterns, and service delivery gaps to highlight areas for improvement. For instance, it has the capacity to identify families eligible for programs but not yet enrolled, ensuring resources reach underserved populations. APIs facilitate real-time data exchange between agencies, enhancing efficiency and accuracy in service provision.^[35] Public dashboards and reports, powered by these technologies, would enhance transparency, building trust by showing taxpayers detailed information on spending and outcomes.

Maryland is one state that recently announced an initiative to modernize its Departments of Health and Human Services, with assistance from its Department of Information Technology.^[36] The initiative rebuilds state government infrastructure to support integrated services, including through an API-driven screening tool that allows Maryland residents to, in just a few steps, check their eligibility for five programs at once.^[37]

By adopting similar strategies, Tennessee will create family-support systems that are responsive, efficient, and quickly administered to the residents who truly need them. Implementing AI-driven analysis and API integration lays the foundation for a unified, family-centric model that better serves all Tennesseans. Other state legislatures will want to follow Tennessee’s example after seeing the fruits of its technological reforms: a system of social services that facilitates eligibility checks, benefits delivery, interagency communication, and evaluation. Importantly, the transparency will show Tennesseans just how hard their tax dollars work to nurture children during their first 1,000 days.

Making Child Care More Affordable and Accessible

Because of high cost and limited supply, Tennessee faces pressing challenges in expanding access to affordable child care to families across the state. The draft report by the Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (TACIR) identifies key strategies to address these issues, with a final report expected in January 2025.^{[38], [39]} The recommendations include a focus on reducing regulations, leveraging public resources, and rethinking workforce qualification requirements to better meet the needs of Tennessee families.

One area of reform in the draft report is improving coordination around building and fire code inspections. Delays and costs related to these inspections are often cited as obstacles to opening or expanding child care facilities. By fostering better collaboration among the Department of Human Services, local governments, and the State Fire Marshal’s Office, Tennessee could streamline the inspection process — an encouraging reform for new providers.

Another promising strategy involves repurposing vacant or underutilized public-school properties for child care services. The draft report suggests leveraging existing public infrastructure to lower facility costs, making it easier for providers to enter the market. By transforming surplus school properties into child care centers, Tennessee could address service gaps in child care deserts. Moreover, making school properties available will help providers in rapidly developing areas where existing properties are hard to come by and new construction is often cost-prohibitive. Placing child care in a school-owned property should also initiate a conversation on zoning reform. Why do some areas allow schools and churches to operate in more zones than child care centers? When school properties double as child care centers, the utility of public assets is maximized for the benefit of families and communities.

Additionally, lawmakers and policymakers should reevaluate educational and training requirements for child care licensing and certification. While formal credentials are important, they sometimes exclude experienced caregivers who possess the necessary skills but lack specific degrees or certifications. Allowing demonstrated experience and a demonstration of skills mastery to substitute for formal education and training could expand the child care workforce. This approach would reduce hiring barriers, enabling more individuals with practical experience to contribute to high-quality care, while also lowering operational costs for providers.

Together, these recommendations aim to create a more accessible and affordable child care system in Tennessee. By addressing regulatory inefficiencies, utilizing public resources, and creating pathways for experienced caregivers, the state can better support families and ensure that high-quality child care is within reach for more Tennesseans.  In anticipation of TACIR’s final report, these proposed reforms give lawmakers a head start to tackling Tennessee’s child care challenges head-on.

Addressing the Benefits Cliff

The benefits cliff hurts low-income families that are striving to achieve financial independence. Transitional benefits are a practical solution, providing a bridge as families move from public assistance to self-sufficiency. By gradually phasing out benefits instead of abruptly cutting them, transitional benefits ensure that families are better off earning higher wages, rather than face the counterintuitive penalty of losing crucial support when they start to progress financially.

A report from the Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity highlights the importance of transitional benefits in Montana’s welfare system.^[40] Their analysis found that transitional benefits — such as extending child care support or housing assistance as income rises —help smooth the steep drop-off in resources that families face when their earnings increase. This approach incentivizes work, fosters financial independence, and reduces the disincentives created by traditional welfare programs​.

In Tennessee, a similar approach is both needed and feasible. Tennesseans overwhelmingly express a desire to work and improve their financial circumstances, yet the benefits cliff remains a significant obstacle. According to the Federal Reserve’s analysis, Tennessee families experiencing the benefits cliff often feel trapped, unable to accept higher-paying jobs or work additional hours without risking a significant financial setback. This dynamic undermines economic mobility and leaves families dependent on assistance programs despite their willingness to move forward​.

Tennessee has already started addressing this issue through a limited pilot program that provides transitional benefits to low-income families.^[41] This program, currently focused on extending child care and housing assistance as families increase their income, aims to help individuals gradually adjust to financial independence. Early feedback from participants suggests that the program is making it easier for families to pursue better job opportunities without fearing the immediate loss of crucial support.

Expanding this pilot program to specifically address the needs of families with young children could make a profound difference. For example, transitional child care assistance could allow parents to accept better-paying jobs without losing access to affordable care. Similarly, extending access to housing or food assistance while gradually tapering support would provide families with the stability needed to focus on building a sustainable income.

By scaling up transitional benefits, Tennessee has an opportunity to create bridges for families transitioning to financial independence. This approach not only aligns with Tennesseans’ desire to work but also strengthens communities by fostering economic stability.

A well-designed system that supports families with young children during this critical period would serve as both a safety net and a springboard, helping parents move beyond the benefits cliff and towards lasting success. Tennessee can lead the way by showing how thoughtful reforms can empower families while reducing dependency and promoting opportunity.

Conclusion: Building a Stronger Tennessee

The first 1,000 days of a child’s life represent a critical period of opportunity to shape the health, education, and well-being of future generations. Tennessee’s current systems, while well-intentioned, are hindered by inefficiencies, high costs, and outdated structures that fail to serve families effectively. By addressing these challenges with bold, family-centric reforms, Tennessee can lead the way in creating a model that empowers mothers, strengthens communities, and builds a more prosperous future.

This report highlights three key areas for action:

• Streamlining fragmented bureaucracies through AI-driven integration;
• Reducing child care costs and increasing access by rethinking regulations;
• Smoothing the benefits cliff with transitional benefits.

These reforms are practical, achievable, and grounded in the urgent need to support families as they navigate critical transitions. These reforms are about improving outcomes for children and building a more prosperous Tennessee for those families whose futures could be positively impacted with stronger and more effective support in place.

It’s time to move beyond the last century’s outdated systems and take bold steps toward building the streamlined, efficient, and family-centered programs that families deserve. This is not just a policy challenge — it’s a moral and economic imperative. With thoughtful reforms and determined action, Tennessee can set a new standard for how states support their most valuable resource: their families.

Appendix A, listing programs and their program eligibility, application, and reporting requirements, may be accessed here.

Naomi Lopez is the founder & principal of Nexus Policy Consulting. With more than 30 years of public policy experience, she has previously served at organizations including the Goldwater Institute, Illinois Policy Institute, the Pacific Research Institute, the Institute for Socioeconomic Studies, and the Cato Institute. A frequent media guest and public speaker, Naomi has authored hundreds of studies, opinion articles and commentaries. She holds a B.A. in economics from Trinity University in Texas and an M.A. in government from Johns Hopkins University.

[1] See for example, Tennessee Department of Finance and Administration. “About the Tennessee Strong Families Grant Program.” Accessed December 2024. Available at https://www.tn.gov/finance/office-of-criminal-justice-programs/ocjp/tennessee-strong-families-grant-program-/about-the-tennessee-strong-families-grant-program-.html.

[2] 1,000 Days, “Resources.” Available at: https://thousanddays.org/resources/?_topics=1000-day-window.

[3] Messerly, Megan, “JD Vance: Republicans need to ‘earn’ trust back on abortion,” Politico; Oct. 2024. Available at: https://www.politico.com/live-updates/2024/10/01/vance-walz-vp-debate-tonight/vance-gop-earn-trust-abortion-00182020.

[4] Transparent Tennessee, “State Budget,” Tennessee State Government. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/transparenttn/state-financial-overview/interactive-budget/state-budget.html.

[5] Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, “DRAFT report on Improving Policies and Addressing Regulatory Barriers to Grow and Support Tennessee’s Child Care Industry,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tacir/commission-meetings/2024december/2024Dec_Tab5ChildCare_DRAFT.pdf.

[6] Chiarenza, Gabriella, “Investing in community expertise, Tennessee takes on the benefits cliff,” Fed Communities; Aug. 2023. Available at: https://fedcommunities.org/stories/tennessee-benefits-cliff-investing-community-expertise/.

[7] Graff, Frank, “In Babies, Crucial Neural Connections Happen Before Age Three,” PBS North Carolina; Sept. 2021. Available at: https://www.pbsnc.org/blogs/science/in-babies-crucial-neural-connections-happen-before-age-three/.

[8] Lake, Anthony, “The first 1,000 days of a child’s life are most important to their development – and our economic success,” World Economic Forum; Jan. 2017. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/stories/2017/01/the-first-1-000-days-of-a-childs-life-are-the-most-important-to-their-development-and-our-economic-success/.

[9] Likhar, A and Patil, MS, “Importance of Maternal Nutrition in the First 1,000 Days of Life and Its Effects on Child Development: A Narrative Review,” Cureus, Volume 14, Issue 10, Oct. 2022. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9640361/.

[10] Cusick, SE and Georgieff, MK, “The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the ‘First 1000 Days,’” The Journal of Pediatrics, Volume 175, Aug. 2016. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4981537/.

[11] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Relationships: The Foundation of Learning and Development,” Infant/Toddler Resource Guide. Available at: https://childcareta.acf.hhs.gov/infant-toddler-resource-guide/infanttoddler-care-providers/relationship-based-care.

[12] Center on the Developing Child, “Toxic Stress,” Harvard University. Available at: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/key-concept/toxic-stress/.

[13] Convergence Center for Policy Resolution, “Convergence Collaborative on Supports for Working Families: Blueprint for Action,” Jan. 2024. Available at: https://convergencepolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Convergence-Collaborative-on-Supports-for-Working-Families-Blueprint-for-Action.pdf.

[14] U.S. Department of the Treasury, “The Economics of Child Care Supply in the United States,” Sept. 2021. Available at: https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/The-Economics-of-Childcare-Supply-09-14-final.pdf.

[15] Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, “DRAFT report on Improving Policies and Addressing Regulatory Barriers to Grow and Support Tennessee’s Child Care Industry,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tacir/commission-meetings/2024december/2024Dec_Tab5ChildCare_DRAFT.pdf.

[16] DePillis, Lydia, Smialek, Jeanna and Casselman, Ben, “Jobs Aplenty, but a Shortage of Care Keeps Many Women From Benefiting,” New York Times; July 2022. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/07/business/economy/women-labor-caregiving.html.

[17] Convergence Center for Policy Resolution, “Convergence Collaborative on Supports for Working Families: Blueprint for Action,” Jan. 2024. Available at: https://convergencepolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Convergence-Collaborative-on-Supports-for-Working-Families-Blueprint-for-Action.pdf.

[18] Chiarenza, Gabriella. “Investing in community expertise, Tennessee takes on the benefits cliff,” Fed Communities; Aug. 2023. Available at: https://fedcommunities.org/stories/tennessee-benefits-cliff-investing-community-expertise/.

[19] Appendix A was compiled by a team of researchers at the Charlotte Lozier Institute, and an analysis of program eligibility, application requirements, and reporting requirements was conducted by a team of researchers at Nexus Policy Consulting. See https://lozierinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Supporting-Mothers-Strengthening-Futures-Appendix-A.pdf.

[20] In the author’s analysis of programs, few had publicly available and transparent reporting requirements, for example.

[21] For a critique of oversized programs that underdeliver in their assistance to families, see, for example, Michael Tanner, “DOGE Should Tackle Our Welfare System” (The Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity Blog). Dec. 23, 2024. Available at: https://freopp.org/oppblog/doge-should-tackle-our-welfare-system/.

[22] Tennessee State Government, “State of the State Employee Annual Report,” 2023. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/hr/documents/2023-Annual-Report_External.pdf.

[23] Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, “DRAFT report on Improving Policies and Addressing Regulatory Barriers to Grow and Support Tennessee’s Child Care Industry,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tacir/commission-meetings/2024december/2024Dec_Tab5ChildCare_DRAFT.pdf.

[24] Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, “2023 Poverty Guidelines: 48 Contiguous States (all states except Alaska and Hawaii),” 2023. Available at: https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1c92a9207f3ed5915ca020d58fe77696/detailed-guidelines-2023.pdf.

[25] Flowers, A.C., Geloso, V., Piano, C., et al., “Childcare Regulation Index in the States: 1st Edition,” Knee Regulatory Research Center; Oct. 2024. Available at: https://csorwvu.com/childcare_regulation_index_1/#.

[26] Id.

[27] Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, “DRAFT report on Improving Policies and Addressing Regulatory Barriers to Grow and Support Tennessee’s Child Care Industry,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tacir/commission-meetings/2024december/2024Dec_Tab5ChildCare_DRAFT.pdf.

[28] U.S. Department of the Treasury, “The Economics of Child Care Supply in the United States,” Sept. 2021. Available at: https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/The-Economics-of-Childcare-Supply-09-14-final.pdf.

[29] Tanner, Michael, “Fixing the Broken Incentives in Montana’s Welfare System,” Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity; Nov. 2024. Available at: https://freopp.org/whitepapers/fixing-the-broken-incentives-in-montanas-welfare-system/.

[30] National Conference of State Legislatures, “Introduction to Benefits Cliffs and Public Assistance Programs,” Nov. 2023. Available at: https://www.ncsl.org/human-services/introduction-to-benefits-cliffs-and-public-assistance-programs.

[31] “Making work pay in Illinois: How welfare cliffs can trap families in poverty,” Illinois Policy Institute; Dec. 2014; https://www.illinoispolicy.org/reports/modeling-potential-income-and-welfare-assistance-benefits-in-illinois/.

[32] Chiarenza, Gabriella, “Investing in community expertise, Tennessee takes on the benefits cliff,” Fed Communities; Aug. 2023. Available at: https://fedcommunities.org/stories/tennessee-benefits-cliff-investing-community-expertise/.

[33] Tanner, Michael, “Fixing the Broken Incentives in Montana’s Welfare System,” the Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity; Nov. 2024. Available at: https://freopp.org/whitepapers/fixing-the-broken-incentives-in-montanas-welfare-system/.

[34] National Conference of State Legislatures, “Introduction to Benefits Cliffs and Public Assistance Programs,” Nov. 2023. Available at: https://www.ncsl.org/human-services/introduction-to-benefits-cliffs-and-public-assistance-programs.

[35] For an overview of APIs, see https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/api.

[36] The Office of Governor Wes Moore, “Governor Moore Announces New Mobile-Friendly Tool to Streamline Benefits Access for Marylanders,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://governor.maryland.gov/news/press/pages/governor-moore-announces-new-mobilefriendly-tool-to-streamline-benefits-access-for-marylanders.aspx.

[37] Wintrode, Brenda, “Maryland makes it easier to determine benefits eligibility with web portal,” The Baltimore Banner; Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.thebaltimorebanner.com/politics-power/state-government/wes-moore-maryland-benefits-ING7NQRTGBELLGT6BVHVAHUWA4/.

[38] Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, “DRAFT report on Improving Policies and Addressing Regulatory Barriers to Grow and Support Tennessee’s Child Care Industry,” Dec. 2024. Available at: https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tacir/commission-meetings/2024december/2024Dec_Tab5ChildCare_DRAFT.pdf.

[39] Gessner, Tori. “Tennessee’s Childcare Crisis: Lawmakers to Consider Solutions Proposed in New Report.” WKRN.com. Dec. 19, 2024. Available at https://www.wkrn.com/news/tennessee-politics/tn-childcare-concerns-report/.

[40] Tanner, Michael. Fixing the Broken Incentives in Montana’s Welfare System. FREOPP White Paper. November 13, 2024. https://freopp.org/whitepapers/fixing-the-broken-incentives-in-montanas-welfare-system/.

[41] Chiarenza, Gabriella. Investing in community expertise, Tennessee takes on the benefits cliff. Fed Communities. August 29, 2023. https://fedcommunities.org/stories/tennessee-benefits-cliff-investing-community-expertise/.