Update: COVID-19 Vaccine Candidates and Abortion-Derived Cell Lines
To view this chart as a PDF, see: COVID-19 Vaccine Candidates and Abortion-Derived Cell Lines
Updated June 2, 2021
Accurate information about the development and production of COVID-19 vaccines is essential, especially because many proposed candidates use newer molecular technologies for production of a viral vaccine. One concern regarding the ethical assessment of viral vaccine candidates is the potential use of abortion-derived cell lines in the development, production or testing of a vaccine. This analysis utilizes data from the primary scientific literature when available, along with data from clinical trial documents, reputable vaccine tracking websites, and published commercial information.1 It is the hope that by providing accurate data, recipients can make well-informed decisions regarding vaccine choices.
For additional background and guidance, please see:
* A Visual Aid to Viral Infection and Vaccine Production for a visual primer on the various strategies for viral vaccine production.
* COVID-19 Vaccines & Fetal Cell Lines for an infographic description of how fetal cell lines are sometimes used to produce vaccines.
Flow Chart for Creation and Testing of Vaccines
 |
Design & Development: conceptualization, preparatory experiments, and specification for how vaccine will be constructed and produced.
Production: process used to manufacture final vaccine to be given to people.
Confirmatory Lab Tests on Product: tests to analyze quality, nucleic acid or protein sequence, protein conformation, antibody reactivity, etc. of final vaccine product.
Vaccination: giving final produced vaccine to people. |
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| Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccine Candidates
Last Updated 2 June 2021
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 DOES NOT USE abortion-derived cell line
� Currently undetermined |
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| Sponsor(s)1 | Country | Strategy2 | Clinical Trial Status3 | Public Funding4 | Design & Development | Production | Confirm-atory Lab Tests |
| WHOLE VIRUS VACCINE – LIVE ATTENUATED or INACTIVATED | |||||||
| Beijing Institute of Biological Products/ Sinopharm | China | Inactivated virus
“BBIBP-CorV” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
WHO granted Emergency Use Listing (EUL) 7May2021 Early approval in China | Vero monkey cells Wang et al., Cell 182, P713, 6Aug2020
|
Vero monkey cells Wang et al., Cell 182, P713, 6Aug2020
|
Cytopathic test Vero monkey cells |
|
| Wuhan Institute of Biological Products/ Sinopharm | China | Inactivated virus
“New Crown COVID-19” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 3 Early approval in China Phase 1/2 |
Vero monkey cells Xia et al., JAMA 324, 951, 13Aug2020 |
Vero monkey cells |
Plaque reduction neutralization test Vero monkey cells Xia et al., JAMA 324, 951, 13Aug2020 |
|
| Bharat Biotech/Indian Council of Medical Research | India | Inactivated virus “BBV152” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart) |
India EUA granted | Vero monkey cells |
Vero monkey cells |
Antibody ELISA Plaque reduction Vero monkey cells Yadav et al., ResearchSquare 10Sept2020 |
|
| Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences | China | Inactivated virus “SARS-CoV-2 vaccine” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 |
Vero monkey cells |
Vero monkey cells |
Antibody ELISA Neutralizing antibody cytopathic effect Vero monkey cells Pu et al., medRxiv, 6Oct2020 Supplement |
|
| John Paul II Medical Research Institute | USA | Live attenuated virus
|
Pre-clinical | Ethical cell lines as a matter of policy |
Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental) |
� | |
| Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems | Kazakhstan | Inactivated virus
“QazCovid-in” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 1/2 |
� | � | � | |
| Sinovac Biotech Co., Ltd. | China | Inactivated virus
“CoronaVac” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart) |
WHO granted Emergency Use Listing (EUL) 1June2021 Phase 4 China granted conditional marketing authorization 8Feb2021 Chile, Brazil, Turkey, Indonesia EUA granted Phase 3 |
Vero monkey cells
|
Vero monkey cells |
 protein test HEK293 cells Supplement Gao et al., Science 369, 77, 3July2020 |
|
| Valneva and Dynavax | France USA UK |
Inactivated Virus “VLA2001” plus adjuvant CpG1018 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 1/2 |
Vero monkey cells |
Vero monkey cells Same platform as IXIARO, Valneva press release, 22April2020 |
� | |
| VIRAL VECTOR-BASED VACCINE | |||||||
| Altimmune | USA | Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “AdCOVID” Given: Intranasal 1-2 doses | Phase 1/2 | PER.C6 cells |
PER.C6 cells |
|
|
| AstraZeneca
University of Oxford
|
USA
UK |
Replication-deficient
Adenovirus vector “AZD1222” “ChAdOX1nCoV-19” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
WHO granted Emergency Use Listing (EUL) on 15Feb2021
India EUA granted Phase 3 |
Operation Warp Speed
HHS-BARDA $1.2 Billion CEPI up to $384 Million |
HEK293 cells |
HEK293 cells van Doremalen et al., Nature, 30July2020 |
HEK293 cellsvan Doremalen et al., Nature, 30July2020 MRC-5 cells Almuqrin et al., ResearchSquare 20Oct2020 |
| CanSino Biologics, Inc.
Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, PLA of China |
China | Replication-deficient
Adenovirus vector “Ad5-nCoV” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose |
EUA in Chile, Hungary, Pakistan, Mexico Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 2 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 1 |
HEK293 cells |
HEK293 cells |
|
|
| Gamaleya Research Institute | Russia | Replication-deficient
Adenovirus vectors (rAd26-S+rAd5-S) “Gam-COVID-Vac” “Sputnik V” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 3 EUA in 39 countries as of Mar2021 Early approval in Russia August 2020 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 |
HEK293 cells |
HEK293 cells Gamaleya has not published details on this vaccine, but has posted information on use of cell lines for their other adenoviral vaccines |
|
|
| ImmunityBio and NantKwest | USA | Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector recombinant “hAd5 S-Fusion + N-ETSD” Given: Subcutaneous | Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1 Phase 1 Phase 1 |
E.C7 cells (derivative of HEK293 cells) Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020 |
E.C7 cells (derivative of HEK293 cells) Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020 |
Protein and antibody tests HEK293T cells Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020 Seiling et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020 |
|
| Institut Pasteur and Themis and Merck | USA
France |
Replication-competent recombinant measles virus “TMV-083” Given: Intramuscular | Development Discontinued Phase 1/2Phase 1 |
CEPI up to $4.9 Million | HEK293T Development and rescue of recombinant measles virus Hörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020 Hörner et al. Supplement “SARS-CoV-2 S-encoding vaccine candidates… were generated as described previously” |
Vero monkey cells Hörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020 |
Lentiviral vectors for antigenic DCFusogenic testHEK293TFusogenic testS protein expressionVero monkey cellsHörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020Hörner et al. Supplement |
| Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR) | Israel | Replication-competent recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔG) “IIBR-100” Given: Intramuscular1 dose | Phase 1/2 | BHK hamster cells Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020 |
Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020 |
Plaque reduction; immunofluorescence Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020 |
|
| Janssen Research & Development, Inc.
Johnson & Johnson |
USA | Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “Ad26.COV2-S” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose (some trials use 2 doses, 8 weeks apart) | FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved | Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1,457,887,081 total | PER.C6 cells |
PER.C6 cells Tostanoski et al., Nature Medicine, 3Sept2020; |
|
| Laboratorio Avi-Mex | Mexico | Live recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus Expressing spike-fusion chimeric protein “Patria” Given: Intramuscular or Intranasal | Phase 1 | Bacterial cells BSRT7 hamster cells Per Sun et al., Vaccines 17Dec2020 |
� Chicken eggs Per Sun et al., Vaccines 17Dec2020 |
� Neutralization Assay Vero monkey cells Per Sun et al., Vaccines 17Dec2020 |
|
| Meissa Vaccines, Inc. | USA | Live attenuated recombinant RSV viral vector “MV-014-210” Given: Intranasal 1-3 doses (5 weeks apart) | Phase 1 | |
Vero monkey cells Spike expressing, |
� | |
| Rega Institute, KU Leuven | Belgium | Replication-competent attenuated yellow fever vaccine (YF17D) vector “YF-S0” Given: Intramuscular dose | Pre-clinical | BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020 |
BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020 |
Antibody titer seudovirus HEK293T cells Immunoblot BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020 |
|
| ReiThera | Italy | Replication-deficient simian adenovirus encoding S “GRAd COV2” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose | Phase 2/3 | HEK293T cells Development and rescue of recombinant |
HEK293T cells Capone et al., bioRxiv 22Oct2020 |
HEK293T cells Capone et al., bioRxiv 22Oct2020 |
|
| Merck and IAVI | USA | Replication-competent recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔG) “V590” Given: Intramuscular | Development Discontinued Phase 1 |
Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $38,033,570 | Vero monkey cells |
Vero monkey cells |
� |
| Shenzhen Geno-immune
Medical Institute |
China | Lentivirus minigenes +
Adult human APC (antigen-presenting cells) “COVID-19/aAPC” Given: Subcutaneous 3 doses (2 weeks apart) |
Phase 1 | � | |
� | |
| Shenzhen Geno-immune
Medical Institute |
China | Lentivirus minigenes +
Adult human CD/T cells (dendritic cells and T cells) “LV-SMENP-DC” Given: Subcutaneous and Intravenous 1 dose |
Phase 1/2 | � | |
� | |
| Vaxart | USA | Replication-deficient
Adenovirus vector “VXA-CoV2-1” plus dsRNA adjuvant Given: Oral 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 1 | HEK293 cells |
HEK293 cells Moore et al., bioRxiv 6Sept2020 |
|
|
| PROTEIN-BASED VACCINE | |||||||
| Anhui Zhifei Longcom Biopharmaceutical/Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences | China | Protein vaccine
Recombinant RBD dimer plus adjuvant ”ZF2001” Given: Intramuscular 2 or 3 doses (28 days apart) |
Phase 3 | HEK293T cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020 |
CHO hamster cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020 |
Pseudovirus HEK293T cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020 |
|
| Clover Biopharmaceuticals, Inc. | China | Protein vaccine “SCB-2019” plus adjuvant CpG 1018 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) | Phase 2/3 | CEPI up to $69.5 Million | cDNA in expression vector; transfect CHO hamster cells Liang et al., bioRxiv, 24Sept2020 Trimer-Tag system; Liu et al., Scientific Reports 2017 |
CHO hamster cells Trimer-Tag system; Liu et al., Scientific Reports 2017 |
PseudovirusHEK293 cellsRef’d: Nie et al., Emerging Microbes & Infections 24Mar2020Cytopathic effect Vero monkey cellsLiang et al., bioRxiv, 24Sept2020 |
| COVAXX and United Biomedical | USA Taiwan |
Protein vaccine “UB-612” S1-RBD-protein; Multitope Peptide-Based Vaccine (MVP) Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart) | Phase 2/3 | cDNA in expression vector; transfect CHO hamster cells Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020 |
CHO hamster cells Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020 |
Antibody blocked binding to hACE2 HEK293 Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020 |
|
| Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vektor” | Russia | Protein vaccine “EpiVacCorona” chemically synthesized peptide antigens of SARS-CoV-2, conjugated to a carrier protein adsorbed on an aluminum-containing adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Early approval in Russia Oct 2020 Phase 1/2 |
� | chemically synthesized peptide antigens |
� | |
| Instituto Finlay de Vacunas | Cuba | Protein vaccine “Finlay-FR-1” (“Soberana 01”) Receptor-binding domain (RBD) SARS-CoV-2 spike + adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (4 weeks apart) | Phase 1/2 Phase 1 |
� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020 |
� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020 |
� | |
| Instituto Finlay de Vacunas | Cuba | Protein vaccine “Finlay-FR-2” (“Soberana 02”) Receptor-binding domain (RBD) SARS-CoV-2 spike chemically bound tetanus toxoid + adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (4 weeks apart) | Phase 2 Phase 1 |
� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020 |
� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020 |
� | |
| John Paul II Medical Research Institute | USA | Recombinant Protein
Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental) |
Pre-clinical | Ethical cell lines as a matter of policy |
Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental) |
� | |
| Kentucky BioProcessing, Inc. (British American Tobacco) |
USA | Protein vaccine “KBP-201” Plant-expressed RBD Given: Intramuscular2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 1/2 | Recombinant DNA sequence for RBD of SARS-CoV-2 |
Plant expression of RBD peptide |
� | |
| Medicago | Canada | Protein on Virus-Like Particle “CoVLP” Plant-expressed spike protein particle with adjuvant, CpG1018 or AS03 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 2/3 | Recombinant DNA sequence in Agrobacterium, transformation of plant cells |
Plant expression of protein and VLP Ward et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020 |
Pseudovirus HEK293 cells Ward et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020 |
|
| Migal Galilee Research Institute | Israel | Protein vaccine
E. coli expressed chimeric S and N proteins Given: Oral |
Pre-clinical | � | Bacterial production system MigVax’s corona subunit vaccine |
� | |
| Novavax | USA | Protein vaccine “NVX-CoV2373” Baculovirus expression plus Matrix M adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) | Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1 |
Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1,600,434,523 CEPI up to $388 Million | |
Sf9 insect cells Bangaru et al., Science, 27Nov2020 Bangaru et al., Supplement Bangaru et al., bioRxiv preprint, 6Aug2020;Graphical view |
Pseudovirus HEK293 cells Bangaru et al., Science, 27Nov2020 Bangaru et al., Supplement Bangaru et al., bioRxiv preprint, 6Aug2020 |
| Sanofi and GSK Protein Sciences | USA France |
Protein vaccine Baculovirus expression plus AS03 adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) | Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1/2 |
Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $2,072,775,336 total | Recombinant baculovirus Francica et al., bioRxiv 2Mar2021 |
Sf9 insect cells Francica et al., bioRxiv 2Mar2021 Baculovirus expressed recombinant protein |
Pseudovirus HEK293T cells |
| Sorrento | USA | Protein vaccine
“T-VIVA-19” SARS-Cov-2 spike protein S1 domain fused with human IgG-Fc Given: Intramuscular |
Pre-clinical | |
CHO cells Herrmann et al., bioRxiv preprint, 30June2020 |
Antibody ELISA; Neutralization assays Vero monkey cells Herrmann et al., bioRxiv preprint, 30June2020 |
|
| Sorrento | USA | Protein vaccine “STI-6991” SARS-Cov-2 spike protein expressed on K562 cells | Pre-clinical | � | K562 cells Concept: Ji et al., Medicine in Drug Discovery March2020 |
� | |
| University of Pittsburgh | USA | Protein vaccine Adenovirus-expressed recombinant proteins “PittCoVacc” Given: Microneedle arrays | Pre-clinical | HEK293 cells |
HEK293 cells |
|
|
| University of Queensland and CSL Ltd. | Australia | Protein vaccine “V451” Recombinant protein with proprietary molecular clamp Given: Intramuscular | HALTED Phase 1 Phase 1 Phase 1 |
CEPI up to $4.5 Million | |
expiCHO hamster cells
|
� |
| Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) / U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command | USA | Protein vaccine ”SpFN” Spike-Ferritin nanoparticle with ALFQ adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2-3 doses (4 weeks apart; plus 6 months after initial injection) |
Phase 1 | Expi293 cells Carmen et al., bioRxiv 28April2021 |
Expi293 cells Carmen et al., bioRxiv 28April2021 |
Pseudovirus HEK293 cells Virus neutralization Vero monkey cells Joyce et al., bioRxiv 25Mar2021 Supplement |
|
| RNA VACCINE | |||||||
| Arcturus Therapeutics | USA | mRNA vaccine
self-transcribing, replicating “LUNAR-CoV19” (“ARCT-021”) in vitro transcription reaction with T7 RNA polymerase from STARR plasmid template LUNAR proprietary lipid nanoparticle encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 1 dose |
Phase 2
|
Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used de Alwis et al., bioRxiv 3Sept2020 |
protein test HEK293 Protein expression Hep3b cells Plaque reduction neutralization Vero monkey cells de Alwis et al., bioRxiv 3Sept2020 |
|
| CureVac | Germany | mRNA vaccine non-replicating “CVnCoV” in vitro transcription lipid nanoparticle encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 Phase 2/3 Phase 2 Phase 1 |
CEPI up to $15.3 Million | Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used Rauch et al., bioRxiv 9Feb2021 |
Protein test Reticulocyte lysate, HeLa cells Rauch et al., bioRxiv 9Feb2021 |
| Imperial College London | UK | mRNA vaccine Self-amplifying ”LNP-nCoVsaRNA” in vitro transcription lipid nanoparticle encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses |
Phase 1 | Expression plasmid HEK293 cells McKay et al., bioRxiv 25April2021 |
No cells used |
Pseudovirus HEK293T cells McKay et al., bioRxiv 25April2021 |
|
| Moderna, Inc.
with National Institutes of Health |
USA | mRNA vaccine
non-replicating “mRNA-1273” T7 RNA polymerase-mediated transcription from DNA plasmid template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved | Operation Warp Speed
HHS-BARDA $2,479,894,979 total CEPI up to $1 Million |
Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used |
protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Plaque reduction neutralization Vero monkey cells Corbett et al., Nature , 5Aug2020 |
| Pfizer and BioNTech | USA
Germany |
mRNA vaccine
non-replicating “BNT-162a1,b1,b2,b3,c2” nucleoside-modified mRNA in vitro transcribed by T7 polymerase from a plasmid DNA template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved
UK EUA granted
|
Operation Warp Speed
HHS-BARDA $1.95 Billion |
Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used |
protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Neutralization assay Vero monkey cells |
| Providence Therapeutics | Canada | mRNA vaccine
“PTX-COVID19-B” mRNA in vitro transcription from plasmid template using T7 RNA polymerase Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 1 | HEK293T cells used to select mRNA candidate |
No cells used |
Pseudovirus, serum neutralization HEK293T cells Vero monkey cells |
|
| Sanofi Pasteur and
Translate Bio |
USA
France |
mRNA vaccine
non-replicating “MRT5500” synthesized by in vitro transcription employing RNA polymerase with a plasmid DNA template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart) |
Phase 1/2 | HEK293T cells used to select mRNA candidate |
No cells used Kalnin et al., npj Vaccines 19Apr2021 Kalnin et al., bioRxiv 14Oct2020 mRNA production in the lab ; Translate Bio scientific platform |
protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells |
|
| DNA VACCINE | |||||||
| Genexine | Korea | DNA vaccine
“GX-19” DNA synthesized in vitro, placed in plasmid vector Given: Intramuscular and Electroporation 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 1/2 | Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used |
No cells used |
|
| Inovio Pharmaceuticals | USA | DNA vaccine
“INO-4800” DNA synthesized in vitro, placed in plasmid vector Given: Intradermal Electroporation 2 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 2/3 | Operation Warp Speed
CEPI up to $22.5 Million |
Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used |
protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells |
| Osaka University, AnGes, Takara Bio | Japan | DNA vaccine
“AG0301-COVID19” 2 doses (2 weeks apart) |
Phase 2/3 | Sequence designed on computer |
No cells used E. coli</em Nishikawa et al., bioRxiv, 14Jan2021 |
Virus neutralization Vero E6 cells monkey cells |
|
| Symvivo Corporation | Canada | DNA vaccine
“bacTRL-spike” Given: Oral, bacteria bind to gut lining 1 dose |
Phase 1 | � | No cells used |
� | |
| Zydus Cadila | India | DNA vaccine
“ZyCov-D” 3 doses (4 weeks apart) |
Phase 3 | Sequence designed on computer |
No eukaryotic cells used E. coli</em Dey et al., bioRxiv, 26Jan2021 |
Expression analysis Plaque reduction Vero cells monkey cells Dey et al., bioRxiv, 26Jan2021 Yadav et al., bioRxiv, 3Feb2021 |
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- Data accumulated from primary literature as referenced in the Chart; AND “COVID-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker,” Milken Institute, https://covid-19tracker.milkeninstitute.org/ ; AND “Draft landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines,” World Health Organization (WHO), https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines
NOTE that patents are not considered because they are unreliable sources; even the most relevant patents are prospective documents that provide examples of potential use, but do not provide information about actual, current application of an invention or technology. - Prentice, DA and Sander Lee, T. June 15, 2020. A Visual Aid to Viral Infection and Vaccine Production. On Science Series 1. Accessed 19 June 2020 at: https://lozierinstitute.org/a-visual-aid-to-viral-infection-and-vaccine-production/
- Phases of Clinical Trials: Pre-clinical- laboratory and animal studies; Phase I- 10-100 people, study safety and dosage; Phase II- tens to hundreds of people, study efficacy, dosage, side effects; Phase III- hundreds to thousands of people, study efficacy and adverse reactions.
- HHS-BARDA = U.S. Health and Human Services-Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority; CEPI = Coalition of Epidemic Preparedness Innovations; BARDA’s rapidly-expanding COVID-19 medical countermeasure portfolio. Accessed 29 Sept 2020 at https://www.medicalcountermeasures.gov/app/barda/coronavirus/COVID19.aspx; CEPI’s COVID-19 Vaccine Portfolio, Accessed 29 Sept 2020 at https://cepi.net/COVAX/
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